{"name":"AerScheduler plain-English FAA regulations","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations","textAsOf":"2026-10-15","textSource":"eCFR (Office of the Federal Register), https://www.ecfr.gov","note":"Summaries are AerScheduler's reading of each rule, not legal advice. Free to reuse with a link back.","sections":[{"cite":"14 CFR 91.403","farCite":"FAR 91.403","name":"The owner is responsible for airworthiness","topic":"owning-an-aircraft","part":"91","heading":"General","lastAmended":"2016-12-30","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/91-403","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/91-403.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-91.403","answer":"The owner or operator is primarily responsible for keeping the aircraft airworthy, and that includes complying with every Airworthiness Directive. The mechanic does the work, but the duty to have it done sits with the owner.","points":[{"text":"The owner or operator carries primary responsibility for airworthiness, including Part 39, the AD rules.","paragraph":"(a)"},{"text":"Maintenance, preventive maintenance and alterations must be done the way Part 91 Subpart E and Part 43 prescribe.","paragraph":"(b)"},{"text":"If the manufacturer's manual has an airworthiness limitations section, its mandatory replacement times and inspection intervals are law, not advice.","paragraph":"(c)"},{"text":"You may only alter an aircraft under a supplemental type certificate (STC) if you hold the STC or have the holder's written permission.","paragraph":"(d)"}],"questions":[{"question":"If my mechanic misses an AD, whose problem is it?","answer":"Paragraph (a) puts primary responsibility on the owner or operator, so the FAA can hold the owner responsible for an aircraft flown out of compliance. Mechanics have their own duties under Part 43, but they do not replace the owner's."},{"question":"Does a leaseback change who is responsible?","answer":"The rule names the owner or operator. In a leaseback the school operating the aircraft is usually the operator, so both parties should agree in writing who arranges inspections and AD compliance."},{"question":"What is a permission letter for an STC?","answer":"Paragraph (d) requires written permission from the STC holder before you install an STC you did not buy yourself. Kit sellers usually include it; a used STC kit may not come with one."}],"related":["14 CFR 91.405","14 CFR 91.409","14 CFR 39.7","14 CFR 91.417"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 91.405","farCite":"FAR 91.405","name":"Maintenance the owner must have done","topic":"owning-an-aircraft","part":"91","heading":"Maintenance required","lastAmended":"2016-12-30","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/91-405","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/91-405.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-91.405","answer":"The owner or operator must have the aircraft inspected as Part 91 requires and have discrepancies repaired between inspections. They must also make sure the mechanic logs every return to service and placards anything left inoperative.","points":[{"text":"Have the required inspections done, and get discrepancies found between them repaired under Part 43.","paragraph":"(a)"},{"text":"Make sure maintenance personnel enter the return to service in the aircraft records.","paragraph":"(b)"},{"text":"Equipment you were allowed to leave inoperative under 91.213(d)(2) must be repaired, replaced, removed or inspected at the next required inspection.","paragraph":"(c)"},{"text":"When a list of discrepancies includes inoperative equipment, make sure it carries the placard 43.11 requires.","paragraph":"(d)"}],"questions":[{"question":"Can I keep deferring an inoperative item forever?","answer":"No. Paragraph (c) says equipment deferred under 91.213(d)(2) has to be dealt with at the next required inspection, so a deferral lasts until the next annual or 100-hour at most."},{"question":"Who makes the logbook entry, the owner or the mechanic?","answer":"The mechanic writes it. The owner's duty under paragraph (b) is to make sure the entry is made before the aircraft flies."}],"related":["14 CFR 91.403","14 CFR 91.213","14 CFR 43.9","14 CFR 43.11"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 91.407","farCite":"FAR 91.407","name":"Flying after maintenance or alteration","topic":"owning-an-aircraft","part":"91","heading":"Operation after maintenance, preventive maintenance, rebuilding, or alteration","lastAmended":"2016-12-30","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/91-407","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/91-407.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-91.407","answer":"After any maintenance, preventive maintenance, rebuilding or alteration, the aircraft cannot fly until an authorized person approves it for return to service and the logbook entry is made. Work that may have changed how it flies also needs a test flight by at least a private pilot before passengers ride along.","points":[{"text":"The return to service must be approved by someone 43.7 authorizes.","paragraph":"(a)(1)"},{"text":"The 43.9 or 43.11 record entry must exist before the flight.","paragraph":"(a)(2)"},{"text":"If the work may have appreciably changed the flight characteristics, a private pilot or higher flies it first, checks the work, and logs the flight. No passengers until then.","paragraph":"(b)"},{"text":"The test flight can be skipped when ground tests or inspection show conclusively that flight characteristics did not change.","paragraph":"(c)"}],"questions":[{"question":"Does an oil change need a test flight?","answer":"No. The test flight in paragraph (b) applies only when the work may have appreciably changed the flight characteristics or substantially affected operation in flight, such as control surface rigging."},{"question":"Can a student pilot do the operational check flight?","answer":"No. Paragraph (b) requires an appropriately rated pilot with at least a private pilot certificate."}],"related":["14 CFR 43.7","14 CFR 43.9","14 CFR 43.11","14 CFR 91.405"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 91.7","farCite":"FAR 91.7","name":"Flying only an airworthy aircraft","topic":"owning-an-aircraft","part":"91","heading":"Civil aircraft airworthiness","lastAmended":"2016-12-30","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/91-7","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/91-7.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-91.7","answer":"No one may operate a civil aircraft that is not airworthy. The pilot in command decides whether the aircraft is in condition for safe flight and must end the flight if an unairworthy condition appears.","points":[{"text":"Flying an unairworthy aircraft is prohibited outright.","paragraph":"(a)"},{"text":"The pilot in command is responsible for deciding the aircraft is safe to fly, every flight.","paragraph":"(b)"},{"text":"If a mechanical, electrical or structural problem makes it unairworthy in flight, the pilot must discontinue the flight.","paragraph":"(b)"}],"questions":[{"question":"What does airworthy mean?","answer":"The FAA reads it as two things: the aircraft conforms to its type design (including ADs and approved alterations) and it is in condition for safe operation. An overdue annual or an open AD fails the first test even if the aircraft flies fine."},{"question":"If the school signed the aircraft off, am I still responsible as the renter?","answer":"Yes. Paragraph (b) makes the pilot in command responsible for determining the aircraft is in condition for safe flight, so a renter still owes a proper preflight and a look at the inspection status."}],"related":["14 CFR 91.403","14 CFR 91.409","14 CFR 91.213","14 CFR 91.3"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 91.9","farCite":"FAR 91.9","name":"Flight manual, markings and placards","topic":"owning-an-aircraft","part":"91","heading":"Civil aircraft flight manual, marking, and placard requirements","lastAmended":"2022-12-09","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/91-9","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/91-9.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-91.9","answer":"You must fly within the operating limitations in the approved flight manual and on the aircraft's markings and placards. A current approved flight manual, or the approved manual material and placards for older aircraft, has to be in the aircraft.","points":[{"text":"Operating limitations in the approved Airplane or Rotorcraft Flight Manual, markings and placards are binding.","paragraph":"(a)"},{"text":"If the aircraft needs an approved flight manual under 21.5, a current one must be on board.","paragraph":"(b)(1)"},{"text":"Older aircraft that do not need one must carry the approved manual material, markings and placards, or a combination.","paragraph":"(b)(2)"},{"text":"The aircraft must carry its registration marks under Part 45 or 48.","paragraph":"(c)"}],"questions":[{"question":"Is a photocopy of the POH enough?","answer":"Where 21.5 requires an approved flight manual, the approved manual for that serial number must be on board. A generic information manual or a copy may not include the aircraft's own weight and balance and supplements."},{"question":"Do I need the weight and balance on board?","answer":"The approved flight manual or manual material includes the aircraft's weight and balance data, which is why it is usually listed among the documents to carry."}],"related":["14 CFR 91.203","14 CFR 91.205","14 CFR 91.7"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 91.203","farCite":"FAR 91.203","name":"Documents required on board","topic":"owning-an-aircraft","part":"91","heading":"Civil aircraft: Certifications required","lastAmended":"2022-12-09","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/91-203","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/91-203.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-91.203","answer":"Every civil aircraft must carry a current airworthiness certificate and an effective registration certificate. The airworthiness certificate has to be displayed at the cabin or cockpit entrance where passengers or crew can read it.","points":[{"text":"A current airworthiness certificate showing the aircraft's registration number must be on board.","paragraph":"(a)(1)"},{"text":"An effective registration certificate, or for flights within the US the second copy of the registration application, must be on board.","paragraph":"(a)(2)"},{"text":"The airworthiness certificate is displayed at the cabin or cockpit entrance, legible to passengers or crew.","paragraph":"(b)"},{"text":"A fuel tank installed in the cabin or baggage compartment needs its FAA Form 337 on board.","paragraph":"(c)"}],"questions":[{"question":"What is ARROW?","answer":"A memory aid for the documents pilots check before flight: Airworthiness certificate, Registration, Radio station license (only for international flights), Operating limitations (the flight manual, 91.9) and Weight and balance. This section covers the A and the first R."},{"question":"Can I fly on the pink copy of the registration application?","answer":"Within the United States, yes: paragraph (a)(2) accepts the second copy of the Aircraft Registration Application under 47.31(c) while the permanent certificate is issued."},{"question":"Does the registration certificate expire?","answer":"Yes. Under 47.40 a certificate issued now expires seven years after the end of the month it was issued, and an expired certificate no longer satisfies this section."}],"related":["14 CFR 47.40","14 CFR 91.9","14 CFR 91.7"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 91.205","farCite":"FAR 91.205","name":"Required instruments and equipment","topic":"owning-an-aircraft","part":"91","heading":"Powered civil aircraft with standard U.S. airworthiness certificates: Instrument and equipment requirements","lastAmended":"2025-01-21","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/91-205","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/91-205.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-91.205","answer":"A powered aircraft with a standard airworthiness certificate must have specific instruments and equipment working for each kind of flight. Day VFR has a basic list, night VFR adds lights and fuses, and IFR adds gyros, a clock and suitable radios.","points":[{"text":"Everything required for the kind of operation must be installed and operable, or an FAA-approved equivalent.","paragraph":"(a)"},{"text":"Day VFR: airspeed indicator, altimeter, magnetic compass, tachometer, oil pressure and temperature gauges, manifold pressure for altitude engines, fuel gauges, gear position indicator, anticollision lights on airplanes certificated after March 11, 1996, seat belts, shoulder harnesses by date of manufacture, and an ELT if 91.207 requires one.","paragraph":"(b)"},{"text":"Night VFR adds position lights, anticollision lights, a landing light if flying for hire, an adequate electrical source, and spare fuses.","paragraph":"(c)"},{"text":"IFR adds two-way radio and navigation equipment for the route, a turn coordinator or rate-of-turn indicator, slip-skid indicator, sensitive altimeter, clock with seconds, adequate generator or alternator, attitude indicator and heading indicator.","paragraph":"(d)"},{"text":"At or above FL 240, if VOR navigation is required, DME or suitable RNAV is also required.","paragraph":"(e)"}],"questions":[{"question":"What is ATOMATOFLAMES?","answer":"A memory aid for the day VFR list in paragraph (b): Airspeed, Tachometer, Oil pressure, Manifold pressure, Altimeter, Temperature, Oil temperature, Fuel gauge, Landing gear position, Anticollision lights, Magnetic compass, ELT, Seat belts."},{"question":"Can I fly day VFR with a broken landing light?","answer":"The landing light is only required at night and only when flying for hire (paragraph (c)(4)). Whether you may fly with it inoperative during the day is decided under 91.213, which also requires deactivating or removing and placarding it."},{"question":"Does a glass panel aircraft still need a clock?","answer":"For IFR, paragraph (d)(6) requires a clock with hours, minutes and seconds, shown by a sweep-second pointer or a digital display. Most glass displays meet it."}],"related":["14 CFR 91.213","14 CFR 91.207","14 CFR 91.9"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 91.213","farCite":"FAR 91.213","name":"Flying with inoperative equipment","topic":"owning-an-aircraft","part":"91","heading":"Inoperative instruments and equipment","lastAmended":"2018-03-05","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/91-213","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/91-213.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-91.213","answer":"You may take off with inoperative equipment only under an approved Minimum Equipment List, or, for most small piston aircraft without one, if the item is not required for the flight, is removed or deactivated and placarded, and is judged not to be a hazard.","points":[{"text":"With an approved MEL, a letter of authorization on board and a records entry, you operate under the MEL's conditions.","paragraph":"(a)"},{"text":"An MEL cannot defer equipment required for type certification, by an AD, or for the specific operation.","paragraph":"(b)"},{"text":"Without an MEL, non-turbine airplanes, rotorcraft, gliders and similar aircraft may fly with an item inoperative only if it is not part of the VFR-day type certification equipment, not on the equipment list or kinds of operations list, not required by 91.205 or another rule, and not required by an AD.","paragraph":"(d)(2)"},{"text":"The item must be removed, with the control placarded and the work logged, or deactivated and placarded \"Inoperative\".","paragraph":"(d)(3)"},{"text":"A pilot or mechanic must decide the inoperative item is not a hazard to the aircraft.","paragraph":"(d)(4)"},{"text":"Anything else needs a special flight permit.","paragraph":"(e)"}],"questions":[{"question":"Can a pilot placard an item inoperative?","answer":"Paragraph (d)(3)(ii) allows deactivation and placarding, and (d)(4) lets an appropriately rated pilot make the hazard determination. If deactivating the item involves maintenance, that part must be done and recorded under Part 43."},{"question":"How long can the item stay inoperative?","answer":"Under 91.405(c) it must be repaired, replaced, removed or inspected at the next required inspection."},{"question":"What is the kinds of operations equipment list?","answer":"A list in many newer flight manuals of equipment required for day VFR, night VFR, IFR and icing. Paragraph (d)(2)(ii) says an item listed as required for the flight you are making cannot be deferred."}],"related":["14 CFR 91.205","14 CFR 91.405","14 CFR 43.11","14 CFR 91.7"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 47.40","farCite":"FAR 47.40","name":"Registration expiration and renewal","topic":"owning-an-aircraft","part":"47","heading":"Registration expiration and renewal","lastAmended":"2025-01-17","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/47-40","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/47-40.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-47.40","answer":"A Certificate of Aircraft Registration expires seven years after the last day of the month it was issued. You can renew it with AC Form 8050-1B and the fee during the six months before the expiration date.","points":[{"text":"A registration lasts seven years, counted from the end of the month of issue.","paragraph":"(a)"},{"text":"Renew with AC Form 8050-1B and the 47.17 fee in the six months before it expires.","paragraph":"(b)"},{"text":"If the certificate's information is wrong, the FAA can require a full new application and fee before it expires.","paragraph":"(c)"}],"questions":[{"question":"Didn't registration used to be three years?","answer":"Yes. The FAA extended it to seven years in 2023. The section as current says seven years for certificates issued under 47.31."},{"question":"What happens if registration expires?","answer":"The aircraft no longer has an effective registration certificate, so 91.203(a)(2) stops it from flying until it is registered again."}],"related":["14 CFR 91.203"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 91.409","farCite":"FAR 91.409","name":"Annual and 100-hour inspections","topic":"inspections","part":"91","heading":"Inspections","lastAmended":"2025-10-22","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/91-409","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/91-409.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-91.409","answer":"Every aircraft needs an annual inspection within the preceding 12 calendar months. An aircraft that carries passengers for hire, or that an instructor provides for flight instruction for hire, also needs an annual or 100-hour inspection every 100 hours of time in service.","points":[{"text":"The annual is due within the preceding 12 calendar months, so it runs to the end of the month a year later, not to the day.","paragraph":"(a)"},{"text":"The annual is done under Part 43 and approved for return to service by a person 43.7 authorizes, in practice a mechanic with Inspection Authorization.","paragraph":"(a)(1)"},{"text":"A 100-hour counts as an annual only if an IA performs it and logs it as an annual.","paragraph":"(a)"},{"text":"The 100-hour applies when carrying anyone other than crew for hire, or when giving flight instruction for hire in an aircraft the instructor provides. An annual also resets it.","paragraph":"(b)"},{"text":"You may run up to 10 hours past 100 only to reach a place where the inspection can be done, and those hours come off the next interval.","paragraph":"(b)"},{"text":"Experimental, light-sport, special flight permit and provisional aircraft are exempt, as are aircraft on a progressive or approved program.","paragraph":"(c)"},{"text":"A progressive inspection program, run under an IA, repair station or manufacturer, can replace the annual and 100-hour if the FSDO accepts it.","paragraph":"(d)"},{"text":"Large airplanes, multiengine turbine airplanes and turbine rotorcraft follow an inspection program chosen under (f) instead.","paragraph":"(e)"}],"questions":[{"question":"If my annual was signed on March 3, when is the next one due?","answer":"By the end of March the following year. The rule counts 12 calendar months, so the due date is the last day of the month, not the anniversary."},{"question":"Does renting an aircraft to a student pilot trigger the 100-hour?","answer":"The rule names two cases: carrying anyone other than crew for hire, and an instructor giving flight instruction for hire in an aircraft that instructor provides. A flight school renting its aircraft for instruction is the common case that needs it. A pure solo rental with no instruction is a question worth putting to your FSDO, and many schools simply do the 100-hour on every rental aircraft."},{"question":"Can I fly 105 hours between 100-hour inspections?","answer":"Only to get the aircraft to a place where the inspection can be done, and the extra 5 hours come off the next 100. You cannot use the 10 hours for ordinary flying."},{"question":"Does an annual reset the 100-hour clock?","answer":"Yes. Paragraph (b) accepts an annual or a 100-hour inspection within the preceding 100 hours."}],"related":["14 CFR Part 43, Appendix D","14 CFR 43.11","14 CFR 91.417","14 CFR 91.403"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 91.411","farCite":"FAR 91.411","name":"Altimeter and pitot-static checks for IFR","topic":"inspections","part":"91","heading":"Altimeter system and altitude reporting equipment tests and inspections","lastAmended":"2016-12-30","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/91-411","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/91-411.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-91.411","answer":"To fly IFR in controlled airspace, an airplane or helicopter's static system, altimeters and altitude reporting equipment must have been tested within the preceding 24 calendar months. The test is also required after the static system is opened or the encoder is worked on.","points":[{"text":"Every 24 calendar months, the static system, each altimeter and the automatic altitude reporting must pass the tests in Part 43 Appendices E and F.","paragraph":"(a)(1)"},{"text":"Opening and closing the static system, other than using the drain or alternate static valve, requires a new static test.","paragraph":"(a)(2)"},{"text":"Work on the transponder's altitude reporting that could introduce a correspondence error requires a new integrated test.","paragraph":"(a)(3)"},{"text":"The test is done by the aircraft manufacturer, a suitably rated repair station, or, for the static system test only, a mechanic with an airframe rating.","paragraph":"(b)"},{"text":"You may not fly IFR above the highest altitude the altimeters and encoder were tested to.","paragraph":"(d)"}],"questions":[{"question":"Do I need the pitot-static check to fly VFR?","answer":"Not under this section, which applies to IFR in controlled airspace. The transponder check in 91.413 applies whenever the transponder is required, VFR included."},{"question":"Can my A&P do the altimeter test?","answer":"A mechanic with an airframe rating may do the static pressure system test only. The altimeter and altitude reporting tests need the manufacturer or an appropriately rated repair station."}],"related":["14 CFR 91.413","14 CFR 91.171","14 CFR 91.409"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 91.413","farCite":"FAR 91.413","name":"Transponder tests and inspections","topic":"inspections","part":"91","heading":"ATC transponder tests and inspections","lastAmended":"2016-12-30","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/91-413","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/91-413.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-91.413","answer":"Any transponder required by 91.215 must have been tested and inspected within the preceding 24 calendar months. It also needs a new test after installation or maintenance that could introduce a data correspondence error.","points":[{"text":"A transponder required under 91.215 must pass the Part 43 Appendix F test every 24 calendar months.","paragraph":"(a)"},{"text":"Installing or working on the transponder in a way that could create a correspondence error needs the Appendix E integrated test.","paragraph":"(b)"},{"text":"The test is done by a suitably rated repair station, an air carrier's continuous airworthiness program, or the aircraft manufacturer if it installed the transponder.","paragraph":"(c)"}],"questions":[{"question":"Is the transponder check the same as the pitot-static check?","answer":"They are different checks on the same 24-calendar-month cycle, which is why shops usually do them together. The transponder check applies whenever the transponder is required, including VFR flight; the pitot-static check in 91.411 applies to IFR."},{"question":"Can an A&P sign off the transponder check?","answer":"No. Paragraph (c) lists repair stations with the right radio rating, certain air carrier programs and the manufacturer. A mechanic's certificate alone is not on the list."}],"related":["14 CFR 91.411","14 CFR 91.225","14 CFR 91.409"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 91.207","farCite":"FAR 91.207","name":"ELT inspection and battery replacement","topic":"inspections","part":"91","heading":"Emergency locator transmitters","lastAmended":"2016-12-30","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/91-207","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/91-207.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-91.207","answer":"Most US-registered airplanes must carry a working emergency locator transmitter, inspected every 12 calendar months. Its battery must be replaced after 1 cumulative hour of use or when half its useful life has passed.","points":[{"text":"Most airplanes must carry an approved, operable ELT; charter and air carrier operations need the automatic type.","paragraph":"(a)"},{"text":"Mount it to minimize crash damage, and fixed or deployable automatic units as far aft as practicable.","paragraph":"(b)"},{"text":"Replace or recharge the battery after 1 cumulative hour of use or at 50 percent of its useful life, and mark the new date on the ELT and in the records.","paragraph":"(c)"},{"text":"Inspect it every 12 calendar months for installation, battery corrosion, controls and crash sensor, and signal strength.","paragraph":"(d)"},{"text":"You may ferry a newly bought airplane to have an ELT installed, or a broken one to be repaired, with only required crew aboard.","paragraph":"(e)"},{"text":"Exempt: training flights entirely within 50 nautical miles of the departure airport, single-seat aircraft, and several other listed operations.","paragraph":"(f)"},{"text":"An ELT removed for service may be out for up to 90 days with a records entry and an \"ELT not installed\" placard.","paragraph":"(f)(10)"}],"questions":[{"question":"Do flight school airplanes need an ELT?","answer":"Paragraph (f)(3) exempts aircraft while engaged in training operations conducted entirely within 50 nautical miles of the airport where the local flight began. Once a flight goes beyond that, such as a cross-country, the exemption no longer covers it."},{"question":"Is the ELT inspection part of the annual?","answer":"It is a separate requirement on its own 12-calendar-month clock. Many shops do it during the annual, but it is tracked and logged on its own."}],"related":["14 CFR 91.205","14 CFR 91.409","14 CFR 91.417"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 91.171","farCite":"FAR 91.171","name":"VOR equipment check for IFR","topic":"inspections","part":"91","heading":"VOR equipment check for IFR operations","lastAmended":"2016-12-30","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/91-171","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/91-171.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-91.171","answer":"To navigate by VOR under IFR, the aircraft's VOR equipment must have been operationally checked within the preceding 30 days and found within tolerance, unless it is maintained under an approved procedure. The pilot logs the date, place, bearing error and signature.","points":[{"text":"The VOR check is good for 30 days, unless the equipment is maintained under an approved procedure.","paragraph":"(a)"},{"text":"A VOT test signal or a designated ground checkpoint allows plus or minus 4 degrees.","paragraph":"(b)(1)"},{"text":"A designated airborne checkpoint allows plus or minus 6 degrees.","paragraph":"(b)(3)"},{"text":"With no signal or checkpoint, an airborne check over a ground point on an airway radial, preferably more than 20 nautical miles out, allows 6 degrees.","paragraph":"(b)(4)"},{"text":"Two independent receivers may be checked against each other, within 4 degrees of each other.","paragraph":"(c)"},{"text":"Log the date, place, bearing error and your signature in the aircraft log or another record.","paragraph":"(d)"}],"questions":[{"question":"Where do I log a VOR check?","answer":"Paragraph (d) says the aircraft log or other record. Many aircraft carry a VOR check sheet in the logbook pocket for exactly this."},{"question":"Do I need a VOR check to fly IFR with GPS only?","answer":"The section applies when operating under IFR using the VOR system. If no part of the flight relies on VOR, it does not come into play, but most IFR aircraft keep it current so VOR stays available."}],"related":["14 CFR 91.411","14 CFR 91.205"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 91.225","farCite":"FAR 91.225","name":"ADS-B Out: where it is required","topic":"inspections","part":"91","heading":"Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast (ADS-B) Out equipment and use","lastAmended":"2024-04-29","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/91-225","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/91-225.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-91.225","answer":"Since January 1, 2020, aircraft need ADS-B Out to fly in Class A, B and C airspace, within the 30 nm Mode C veil, above Class B and C shelves, and in Class E at or above 10,000 feet MSL. Aircraft certificated without an engine-driven electrical system, such as gliders and many antiques, are partly exempt.","points":[{"text":"Class A airspace requires 1090 MHz ADS-B Out meeting TSO-C166b or C166c.","paragraph":"(a)"},{"text":"Below 18,000 feet MSL in the airspace listed in (d), either 1090 MHz or 978 MHz UAT equipment is acceptable.","paragraph":"(b)"},{"text":"ADS-B is required in Class B and C, within 30 nm of the listed Class B airports up to 10,000 feet MSL, above Class B and C ceilings to 10,000 feet, and in Class E at or above 10,000 feet MSL except at or below 2,500 feet AGL.","paragraph":"(d)"},{"text":"Aircraft never certificated with an engine-driven electrical system may fly in the 10,000-foot Class E and inside the Mode C veil if they stay outside and below Class B and C.","paragraph":"(e)"},{"text":"Equipped aircraft must transmit at all times unless the FAA or ATC directs otherwise.","paragraph":"(f)"},{"text":"ATC can authorize a flight with inoperative ADS-B at any time, or without ADS-B with at least 1 hour's notice.","paragraph":"(g)"}],"questions":[{"question":"Do I need ADS-B to fly in Class D airspace?","answer":"Not because it is Class D. But many Class D airports sit inside a Mode C veil or under a Class B or C shelf, where (d) does require it."},{"question":"Can I turn ADS-B off?","answer":"No. Paragraph (f) requires equipped aircraft to transmit at all times unless the FAA authorizes otherwise for a sensitive government mission or ATC directs it."}],"related":["14 CFR 91.413","14 CFR 91.205"]},{"cite":"14 CFR Part 43, Appendix D","farCite":"FAR Part 43 Appendix D","name":"What an annual and 100-hour inspection must cover","topic":"inspections","part":"43","heading":"Scope and Detail of Items (as Applicable to the Particular Aircraft) To Be Included in Annual and 100-Hour Inspections","lastAmended":"2016-12-30","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/43-appendix-d","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/43-appendix-d.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/part-43/appendix-Appendix%20D%20to%20Part%2043","answer":"Appendix D lists the minimum an annual or 100-hour inspection must cover. The inspector opens and cleans the aircraft, then checks each group, from fuselage, cabin, engine and landing gear to wings, tail, propeller and radios, for the defects the appendix names.","points":[{"text":"Before inspecting, open all necessary inspection plates, access doors, fairings and cowling, and clean the aircraft and engine.","paragraph":"(a)"},{"text":"Fuselage and hull: skin and fabric, systems and components.","paragraph":"(b)"},{"text":"Cabin and cockpit: loose equipment, seats and belts, windows, instruments, controls, batteries and all systems.","paragraph":"(c)"},{"text":"Engine and nacelle: leaks, studs and nuts, compression and metal in screens, mounts, controls, hoses, exhaust, accessories and cowling.","paragraph":"(d)"},{"text":"Landing gear: struts, linkages, retraction, hydraulic lines, wiring, wheels, tires, brakes, floats and skis.","paragraph":"(e)"},{"text":"Wings, center section and the complete empennage.","paragraph":"(f)"},{"text":"Propeller: blades, bolts, anti-ice and controls.","paragraph":"(h)"},{"text":"Radios: installation, wiring, bonding and shielding, antennas. Then anything installed that is not listed.","paragraph":"(i)"}],"questions":[{"question":"Is the annual more thorough than the 100-hour?","answer":"The scope in Appendix D is the same for both. The difference is who may sign: an annual needs a mechanic with Inspection Authorization, while a 100-hour can be signed by a mechanic with airframe and powerplant ratings."},{"question":"Does the manufacturer's checklist replace Appendix D?","answer":"Appendix D is the minimum. Manufacturers' inspection checklists usually go further, and mechanics generally follow the manufacturer's list as long as it covers everything in Appendix D."}],"related":["14 CFR 91.409","14 CFR 43.11","14 CFR 43.7"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 91.417","farCite":"FAR 91.417","name":"Maintenance records an owner must keep","topic":"maintenance-records","part":"91","heading":"Maintenance records","lastAmended":"2025-10-22","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/91-417","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/91-417.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-91.417","answer":"An owner keeps two kinds of records. Work records (what was done, when, and who signed it) are kept until the work is repeated or superseded, or for a year. Status records (total time, life-limited parts, overhaul times, inspection status, AD status and Form 337s) stay with the aircraft for good and transfer when it is sold.","points":[{"text":"Work records: every maintenance, preventive maintenance, alteration and required inspection, with a description, the completion date, and the signature and certificate number of whoever approved the return to service.","paragraph":"(a)(1)"},{"text":"Status records: total time in service of the airframe, each engine, propeller and rotor; life-limited parts; time since overhaul of items with an overhaul interval; and current inspection status.","paragraph":"(a)(2)"},{"text":"AD status: for each applicable AD, the method of compliance, the AD number and revision date, and when the next action is due if it recurs.","paragraph":"(a)(2)(v)"},{"text":"A copy of the Form 337 for each major alteration to the airframe and currently installed engines, rotors, propellers and appliances.","paragraph":"(a)(2)(vi)"},{"text":"Work records are kept until the work is repeated or superseded, or for 1 year after it was done.","paragraph":"(b)(1)"},{"text":"Status records are kept and transferred with the aircraft when it is sold.","paragraph":"(b)(2)"},{"text":"A list of discrepancies from an inspection is kept until the defects are fixed and the aircraft is returned to service.","paragraph":"(b)(3)"},{"text":"Records must be shown to the FAA or the NTSB on request. Transponder and pitot-static test records are excluded from this section.","paragraph":"(c)"}],"questions":[{"question":"Can I throw away old logbooks after a year?","answer":"Only the entries for work that has been repeated or superseded, and owners rarely do, because the status records in (a)(2) depend on them and buyers expect complete logbooks. The status information itself never expires while you own the aircraft."},{"question":"Does a tracking spreadsheet or app count as the record?","answer":"A tracking system can hold the current status, but the work records need the signature and certificate number of the person who approved the return to service. That signed entry, usually in the logbook, is the record."},{"question":"What does an AD status record need to show?","answer":"Each applicable AD, its number and revision date, how it was complied with, and, for a recurring AD, the time and date the next action is due."}],"related":["14 CFR 91.419","14 CFR 43.9","14 CFR 43.11","14 CFR 39.7"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 91.419","farCite":"FAR 91.419","name":"Maintenance records when an aircraft is sold","topic":"maintenance-records","part":"91","heading":"Transfer of maintenance records","lastAmended":"2016-12-30","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/91-419","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/91-419.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-91.419","answer":"Whoever sells a US-registered aircraft must give the buyer its status records from 91.417(a)(2) at the time of sale, and its work records too, although the buyer can let the seller keep physical custody of those.","points":[{"text":"The status records (total time, life-limited parts, overhaul times, inspection and AD status, Form 337s) go to the buyer at the sale.","paragraph":"(a)"},{"text":"The work records go too, unless the buyer agrees the seller may keep physical custody of them.","paragraph":"(b)"},{"text":"Even then, the buyer is responsible for making the records available to the FAA and NTSB.","paragraph":"(b)"},{"text":"Records may be handed over in plain language or coded form, at the buyer's choice.","paragraph":"(a)"}],"questions":[{"question":"The seller lost a logbook. What now?","answer":"The rule requires the seller to transfer the records, but it cannot recreate missing ones. A missing logbook usually means reconstructing status from other sources, a large inspection, and a lower price."}],"related":["14 CFR 91.417","14 CFR 91.421"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 91.421","farCite":"FAR 91.421","name":"Records for a rebuilt engine","topic":"maintenance-records","part":"91","heading":"Rebuilt engine maintenance records","lastAmended":"2016-12-30","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/91-421","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/91-421.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-91.421","answer":"An engine rebuilt by its manufacturer, or by an agency the manufacturer approves, may start a new maintenance record with no previous history. That is what zero time means; an overhauled engine does not qualify.","points":[{"text":"A manufacturer-rebuilt engine may use a new record without previous operating history.","paragraph":"(a)"},{"text":"The rebuilder enters the rebuild date, each change made for ADs, and service bulletin changes where the bulletin asks for an entry.","paragraph":"(b)"},{"text":"Rebuilt means disassembled, inspected, repaired, reassembled and tested to the same tolerances as a new engine, with every part meeting new-part limits or approved oversize or undersize.","paragraph":"(c)"}],"questions":[{"question":"Is an overhauled engine zero time?","answer":"No. Only a rebuilt engine, as defined in paragraph (c) and done by the manufacturer or its approved agency, gets a new record. An overhauled engine keeps its history and is described by time since overhaul."}],"related":["14 CFR 91.417","14 CFR 91.419"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 43.3","farCite":"FAR 43.3","name":"Who may perform maintenance","topic":"maintenance-records","part":"43","heading":"Persons authorized to perform maintenance, preventive maintenance, rebuilding, and alterations","lastAmended":"2016-12-30","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/43-3","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/43-3.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-43.3","answer":"Maintenance may be done by certificated mechanics and repairmen, repair stations, air carriers and manufacturers, and by people working under a mechanic's direct supervision. A pilot may do preventive maintenance on an aircraft they own or operate, as long as it is not used under Parts 121, 129 or 135.","points":[{"text":"The work that counts as a major alteration, a major repair or preventive maintenance is listed in Appendix A.","paragraph":"(a)"},{"text":"Certificated mechanics and repairmen work under the privileges of Part 65.","paragraph":"(b)"},{"text":"Someone without a certificate may work under a mechanic's supervision if the mechanic watches closely enough and is readily available in person. That never covers the required inspections.","paragraph":"(d)"},{"text":"Repair stations, air carriers and manufacturers each work under their own rules.","paragraph":"(e)"},{"text":"A pilot certificate holder, other than sport pilot, may do preventive maintenance on an aircraft they own or operate that is not used under Parts 121, 129 or 135.","paragraph":"(g)"},{"text":"Avionics database updates loaded from the flight deck without tools or disassembly are not maintenance, and pilots may do them.","paragraph":"(k)"}],"questions":[{"question":"Can a renter or student do preventive maintenance on a school airplane?","answer":"Paragraph (g) requires the pilot to own or operate the aircraft. A renter is usually not the operator of a school's aircraft, so most schools leave preventive maintenance to their mechanic."},{"question":"Can my friend help me with an oil change under my A&P's supervision?","answer":"Under (d), yes, if the mechanic personally observes enough to be sure it is done properly and is readily available in person. The mechanic then signs for it."},{"question":"Who signs off preventive maintenance a pilot does?","answer":"The pilot, under 43.7(f), with a logbook entry that meets 43.9."}],"related":["14 CFR Part 43, Appendix A","14 CFR 43.7","14 CFR 43.9"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 43.7","farCite":"FAR 43.7","name":"Who may approve a return to service","topic":"maintenance-records","part":"43","heading":"Persons authorized to approve aircraft, airframes, aircraft engines, propellers, appliances, or component parts for return to service after maintenance, preventive maintenance, rebuilding, or alteration","lastAmended":"2016-12-30","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/43-7","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/43-7.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-43.7","answer":"Only certain people may sign an aircraft back into service after maintenance: mechanics and Inspection Authorization holders within Part 65, repair stations, manufacturers for their own work, air carriers, and a private pilot or higher after preventive maintenance they did themselves.","points":[{"text":"Mechanics and IA holders approve returns to service within their Part 65 privileges.","paragraph":"(b)"},{"text":"Repair stations approve within Part 145.","paragraph":"(c)"},{"text":"Manufacturers approve work they did under 43.3(j), using approved data except for minor alterations.","paragraph":"(d)"},{"text":"A private pilot or higher may approve the return to service after doing preventive maintenance under 43.3(g).","paragraph":"(f)"},{"text":"A sport pilot may do the same only on a light-sport aircraft they own or operate.","paragraph":"(h)"}],"questions":[{"question":"Who can sign off an annual inspection?","answer":"A mechanic holding an Inspection Authorization, under the Part 65 privileges this section refers to, or a repair station or manufacturer authorized for it."},{"question":"Can a student pilot sign off preventive maintenance?","answer":"No. Paragraph (f) requires at least a private pilot certificate."}],"related":["14 CFR 43.3","14 CFR 43.9","14 CFR 91.407"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 43.9","farCite":"FAR 43.9","name":"What a maintenance logbook entry must say","topic":"maintenance-records","part":"43","heading":"Content, form, and disposition of maintenance, preventive maintenance, rebuilding, and alteration records (except inspections performed in accordance with part 91, part 125, § 135.411(a)(1), and § 135.419 of this chapter)","lastAmended":"2016-12-30","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/43-9","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/43-9.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-43.9","answer":"Whoever does maintenance, preventive maintenance or an alteration makes a logbook entry with a description of the work, the date it was completed, the name of who did it, and the signature, certificate number and kind of certificate of whoever approved it. Major repairs and alterations also need a Form 337.","points":[{"text":"Describe the work, or reference data acceptable to the FAA.","paragraph":"(a)(1)"},{"text":"The date the work was completed.","paragraph":"(a)(2)"},{"text":"The name of the person who did the work, if different from the person approving it.","paragraph":"(a)(3)"},{"text":"The approving person's signature, certificate number and kind of certificate. The signature approves the return to service for that work only.","paragraph":"(a)(4)"},{"text":"Inspections are logged under 43.11 instead.","paragraph":"(c)"},{"text":"Major repairs and alterations are also recorded on a form (the FAA Form 337) under Appendix B.","paragraph":"(d)"}],"questions":[{"question":"Does a pilot doing an oil change need a logbook entry?","answer":"Yes. Preventive maintenance is covered by paragraph (a), so the pilot makes the entry with the description, date, signature, certificate number and kind of certificate."},{"question":"What is a Form 337?","answer":"FAA Form 337, Major Repair and Alteration, the form Appendix B prescribes for major repairs and alterations. The owner keeps a copy under 91.417(a)(2)(vi)."}],"related":["14 CFR 43.11","14 CFR 91.417","14 CFR 43.7"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 43.11","farCite":"FAR 43.11","name":"What an inspection logbook entry must say","topic":"maintenance-records","part":"43","heading":"Content, form, and disposition of records for inspections conducted under parts 91 and 125 and §§ 135.411(a)(1) and 135.419 of this chapter","lastAmended":"2016-12-30","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/43-11","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/43-11.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-43.11","answer":"After an annual, 100-hour or other required inspection, the inspector logs the type and extent of the inspection, the date and total time, their signature and certificate, and a statement that the aircraft is airworthy or that a list of discrepancies was given to the owner.","points":[{"text":"Log the type of inspection and a brief description of its extent.","paragraph":"(a)(1)"},{"text":"Log the date and the aircraft's total time in service.","paragraph":"(a)(2)"},{"text":"Sign with certificate number and kind of certificate, whether approving or disapproving.","paragraph":"(a)(3)"},{"text":"An airworthy aircraft gets a statement such as: \"I certify that this aircraft has been inspected in accordance with (type) inspection and was determined to be in airworthy condition.\"","paragraph":"(a)(4)"},{"text":"A failed aircraft gets a statement that a dated list of discrepancies and unairworthy items was given to the owner.","paragraph":"(a)(5)"},{"text":"The owner receives that signed, dated list; items allowed to stay inoperative under 91.213(d)(2) are placarded \"Inoperative\" and added to it.","paragraph":"(b)"}],"questions":[{"question":"Does a failed annual mean the inspection has to be redone?","answer":"No. The annual is complete with a discrepancy list. Once the listed items are fixed and signed off under 43.9, the aircraft can be returned to service without starting the inspection over."}],"related":["14 CFR 43.9","14 CFR 91.409","14 CFR Part 43, Appendix D","14 CFR 91.405"]},{"cite":"14 CFR Part 43, Appendix A","farCite":"FAR Part 43 Appendix A","name":"Major repairs, major alterations and preventive maintenance","topic":"maintenance-records","part":"43","heading":"Major Alterations, Major Repairs, and Preventive Maintenance","lastAmended":"2022-09-21","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/43-appendix-a","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/43-appendix-a.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/part-43/appendix-Appendix%20A%20to%20Part%2043","answer":"Appendix A defines three lists: major alterations, major repairs, and preventive maintenance. The preventive maintenance list in paragraph (c) is the work a pilot may do on an aircraft they own or operate, such as tire changes, spark plugs, oil and fuel filters, batteries and simple fabric patches.","points":[{"text":"Major alterations to airframes, powerplants, propellers and appliances, such as changes to wings, control systems, engine conversions or fuel grade, unless they are already in the aircraft's specifications.","paragraph":"(a)"},{"text":"Major repairs, such as repairs to spars, ribs and longerons, stressed skin damage over six inches, crankcase separation and propeller blade repairs.","paragraph":"(b)"},{"text":"Preventive maintenance includes tires and wheel bearings, shock struts, safety wire, lubrication, simple fabric patches, hydraulic fluid, paint touch-up, upholstery, side windows, seat belts and seats, light bulbs, cowlings, spark plugs, hoses, fuel lines, oil and fuel filters, and batteries.","paragraph":"(c)"},{"text":"Preventive maintenance never involves complex assembly operations.","paragraph":"(c)"},{"text":"Removing and replacing tray-mounted panel navigation and communication radios is preventive maintenance, except autopilots, transponders and DME, with an operational check before use.","paragraph":"(c)(31)"}],"questions":[{"question":"Can a pilot change the oil?","answer":"Changing the oil is not one of the numbered items, but cleaning or replacing oil strainers and filter elements is listed at (c)(23), and the FAA has long treated a routine oil change as preventive maintenance. Pilots commonly do them on aircraft they own or operate; if in doubt for your aircraft, ask your mechanic or FSDO."},{"question":"Can a pilot replace a radio?","answer":"Only a self-contained, tray-mounted nav or comm unit designed for quick removal, under (c)(31). Autopilots, transponders and DME are excluded, and installing a new radio is not on the list."},{"question":"Why does it matter whether a repair is major?","answer":"Major repairs and alterations need approved data and a Form 337 under 43.9(d), and the owner keeps a copy under 91.417."}],"related":["14 CFR 43.3","14 CFR 43.7","14 CFR 43.9"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 39.3","farCite":"FAR 39.3","name":"What an Airworthiness Directive is","topic":"airworthiness-directives","part":"39","heading":"Definition of airworthiness directives","lastAmended":"2016-12-30","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/39-3","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/39-3.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-39.3","answer":"An Airworthiness Directive is a legally enforceable FAA rule, not a recommendation. ADs apply to four kinds of product: aircraft, aircraft engines, propellers and appliances.","points":[{"text":"ADs are legally enforceable rules.","paragraph":null},{"text":"They apply to aircraft, engines, propellers and appliances, so an aircraft can be subject to ADs on its airframe and on every part installed on it.","paragraph":null}],"questions":[{"question":"Is a manufacturer's service bulletin the same as an AD?","answer":"No. A service bulletin is the manufacturer's recommendation. It becomes mandatory for Part 91 operators only when an AD requires it, which many ADs do by reference."},{"question":"Why does an engine AD apply to my airplane?","answer":"Because 39.3 makes ADs apply to engines, propellers and appliances as products in their own right. An AD on your engine model or your magnetos applies wherever that product is installed."}],"related":["14 CFR 39.7","14 CFR 39.11","14 CFR 91.403"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 39.7","farCite":"FAR 39.7","name":"Flying without complying with an AD","topic":"airworthiness-directives","part":"39","heading":"What is the legal effect of failing to comply with an airworthiness directive?","lastAmended":"2016-12-30","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/39-7","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/39-7.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-39.7","answer":"Anyone who operates a product that does not meet the requirements of an applicable Airworthiness Directive is in violation of 39.7. That makes an overdue AD a reason not to fly, and the pilot and the owner can both be held responsible.","points":[{"text":"Operating a product that does not meet an applicable AD is a violation.","paragraph":null},{"text":"It applies to anyone who operates it: the pilot flying it as well as the owner who keeps it.","paragraph":null}],"questions":[{"question":"If my AD is a few hours overdue, can I fly to the shop?","answer":"Not under 39.7 alone. You would need a special flight permit under 39.23, unless the AD itself allows the flight."},{"question":"How do I know which ADs apply to my aircraft?","answer":"By serial number, installed equipment and the aircraft's records, which is a mechanic's determination. A search by model, such as the AD library, finds the ADs worth reading; the logbook's AD status record (91.417(a)(2)(v)) shows how each was handled."}],"related":["14 CFR 39.3","14 CFR 39.23","14 CFR 91.403","14 CFR 91.417"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 39.11","farCite":"FAR 39.11","name":"What an AD can require","topic":"airworthiness-directives","part":"39","heading":"What actions do airworthiness directives require?","lastAmended":"2016-12-30","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/39-11","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/39-11.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-39.11","answer":"An AD can require three kinds of thing: inspections you must carry out, conditions and limitations you must comply with, and actions you must take to resolve the unsafe condition.","points":[{"text":"Inspections, often repetitive, at the intervals the AD sets.","paragraph":null},{"text":"Conditions and limitations, such as placards, operating restrictions or limits on use.","paragraph":null},{"text":"Actions that resolve the unsafe condition, such as replacing or modifying a part, which may end a repetitive inspection.","paragraph":null}],"questions":[{"question":"What is a terminating action?","answer":"An action, usually replacing or modifying a part, that the AD says ends its repetitive inspections. Until it is done, the repetitive inspections keep coming due."},{"question":"Can a pilot comply with an AD?","answer":"Some ADs allow a pilot to do a specific check, such as a fuel cap inspection, and make the record entry. Unless the AD says so, the work is maintenance and needs a mechanic."}],"related":["14 CFR 39.3","14 CFR 39.19","14 CFR 91.417"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 39.15","farCite":"FAR 39.15","name":"ADs on a modified aircraft or part","topic":"airworthiness-directives","part":"39","heading":"Does an airworthiness directive apply if the product has been changed?","lastAmended":"2016-12-30","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/39-15","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/39-15.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-39.15","answer":"Yes, an AD still applies after the product has been changed. Modifying, altering or repairing the affected area does not take an aircraft or part out of an AD that names it.","points":[{"text":"An AD applies to each product it identifies, even one that has been modified, altered or repaired in the area the AD covers.","paragraph":null},{"text":"If the change makes the AD's actions impossible, the way out is an alternative method of compliance under 39.19, not ignoring the AD.","paragraph":null}],"questions":[{"question":"My aircraft has an STC in the area the AD covers. Does the AD still apply?","answer":"Yes, under 39.15. If the STC makes the AD's instructions unworkable, ask the FAA for an alternative method of compliance under 39.19."}],"related":["14 CFR 39.19","14 CFR 39.7"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 39.19","farCite":"FAR 39.19","name":"Alternative methods of compliance (AMOC)","topic":"airworthiness-directives","part":"39","heading":"May I address the unsafe condition in a way other than that set out in the airworthiness directive?","lastAmended":"2016-12-30","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/39-19","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/39-19.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-39.19","answer":"Anyone may propose an alternative method of compliance (AMOC), or a change in compliance time, that gives an acceptable level of safety. You may use it only after the manager of the FAA office named in the AD approves it.","points":[{"text":"Propose the specific actions you would take instead, or a different compliance time.","paragraph":null},{"text":"Send it to your principal inspector, who forwards it with comments to the manager of the office named in the AD. You may copy the manager at the same time.","paragraph":null},{"text":"Without a principal inspector, as most Part 91 owners are, send it straight to that manager.","paragraph":null},{"text":"You may not use the alternative until the manager approves it.","paragraph":null}],"questions":[{"question":"Who is the manager identified in the AD?","answer":"Each AD names the FAA office responsible for it, usually near the end of the AD under the heading on alternative methods of compliance, with a contact."},{"question":"Can I use an AMOC someone else got approved?","answer":"Some AMOCs are approved globally for everyone; many are approved for one aircraft or operator only. Check the approval letter's scope before relying on it."}],"related":["14 CFR 39.15","14 CFR 39.11","14 CFR 39.7"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 39.23","farCite":"FAR 39.23","name":"Ferrying an aircraft with an open AD","topic":"airworthiness-directives","part":"39","heading":"May I fly my aircraft to a repair facility to do the work required by an airworthiness directive?","lastAmended":"2016-12-30","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/39-23","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/39-23.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-39.23","answer":"You can usually fly an aircraft with an open AD to a place where the work can be done, but you need a special flight permit (a ferry permit) from the FAA unless your operations specifications already allow it. The AD itself can rule the flight out.","points":[{"text":"Operators whose operations specifications include it may fly to a repair facility under that authority.","paragraph":null},{"text":"Everyone else asks the local Flight Standards District Office for a special flight permit.","paragraph":null},{"text":"The FAA may not issue one if the AD prohibits it, and may add conditions or refuse when the aircraft cannot be moved safely.","paragraph":null}],"questions":[{"question":"How do I get a ferry permit?","answer":"Apply to your local FSDO for a special flight permit under Part 21. Many FSDOs accept the application online, and a mechanic usually has to inspect the aircraft and certify it safe for the flight."},{"question":"What if the AD says no special flight permits?","answer":"Then 39.23 does not help. The work has to be done where the aircraft sits, or the aircraft moved by other means."}],"related":["14 CFR 39.7","14 CFR 91.213"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 61.3","farCite":"FAR 61.3","name":"Certificates a pilot must hold and carry","topic":"pilots-and-renters","part":"61","heading":"Requirement for certificates, ratings, privileges, and authorizations","lastAmended":"2025-10-22","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/61-3","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/61-3.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-61.3","answer":"To act as a required pilot you must have your pilot certificate, a government photo ID and, unless an exception applies, your medical certificate in your possession or readily accessible in the aircraft. You must show them to the FAA, NTSB, TSA or a law enforcement officer who asks.","points":[{"text":"Carry your pilot certificate, or a temporary certificate or authority to fly, on every flight.","paragraph":"(a)(1)"},{"text":"Carry a photo ID: a driver's license, government ID card, military ID, passport or airport SIDA badge.","paragraph":"(a)(2)"},{"text":"Carry your medical certificate, unless an exception applies, such as BasicMed, gliders, balloons or sport pilots flying on a driver's license.","paragraph":"(c)"},{"text":"Only a flight instructor may give the training required for solo and solo cross-country, endorse applicants, or endorse logbooks.","paragraph":"(d)(2)"},{"text":"Flying IFR, or in weather below VFR minimums, requires an instrument rating.","paragraph":"(e)"},{"text":"Show your certificates and ID on request to the FAA, the NTSB, any law enforcement officer or the TSA.","paragraph":"(l)"}],"questions":[{"question":"Can I show my pilot certificate on my phone?","answer":"Paragraph (a)(1) requires a certificate issued under 61.19, a temporary certificate, or the document the Airmen Certification Branch issues under 61.29(e). A photo of your plastic certificate is none of those."},{"question":"Do I need my medical with me if I fly under BasicMed?","answer":"No medical certificate is required under (c)(2)(xiii), but you need a US driver's license and must meet 61.23(c)(3), and 61.113(i) requires your BasicMed paperwork in your logbook."}],"related":["14 CFR 61.23","14 CFR 61.113","14 CFR 61.51"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 61.23","farCite":"FAR 61.23","name":"How long a medical certificate lasts","topic":"pilots-and-renters","part":"61","heading":"Medical certificates: Requirement and duration","lastAmended":"2025-10-22","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/61-23","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/61-23.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-61.23","answer":"A private, recreational or student pilot needs at least a third-class medical, or BasicMed. For those privileges any class of medical lasts 60 calendar months if you were under 40 at the exam, and 24 calendar months if you were 40 or older. Commercial privileges need a second-class medical, good for 12 months.","points":[{"text":"First class: ATP pilot-in-command privileges and some Part 121 roles.","paragraph":"(a)(1)"},{"text":"Second class: commercial pilot privileges, other than in balloons or gliders.","paragraph":"(a)(2)"},{"text":"Third class: private, recreational and student pilots, and flight instructors acting as pilot in command, unless flying under BasicMed.","paragraph":"(a)(3)"},{"text":"No medical: gliders, balloons, flight instructors not acting as pilot in command, ground instructors, and checkrides in simulators.","paragraph":"(b)"},{"text":"BasicMed: hold a US driver's license, have held an FAA medical at any time after July 14, 2006, take the online course every 24 calendar months and see a state-licensed physician every 48 calendar months.","paragraph":"(c)(3)"},{"text":"Duration for private, student and instructor privileges: 60 calendar months if under 40 at the exam, 24 if 40 or older, whatever the class. For commercial privileges first and second class last 12 months; for ATP privileges a first class lasts 12 months under 40 and 6 months at 40 or older.","paragraph":"(d)"}],"questions":[{"question":"My second-class medical has lapsed for commercial flying. Can I still fly privately on it?","answer":"Yes. The table in (d) gives each class a longer life for private privileges: 60 months if you were under 40 at the exam, 24 if 40 or older, counted to the end of the month."},{"question":"When exactly does a medical expire?","answer":"At the end of the last day of the month: a third-class medical from an exam on March 10, 2026, at age 45 expires at the end of March 31, 2028."},{"question":"Can a flight instructor teach without a medical?","answer":"Yes, if they are not acting as pilot in command or as a required crewmember (paragraph (b)(7)). If the student cannot act as pilot in command, the instructor must, and then needs a medical or BasicMed."}],"related":["14 CFR 61.113","14 CFR 61.3","14 CFR 61.56"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 91.17","farCite":"FAR 91.17","name":"Alcohol and drugs: the eight-hour rule","topic":"pilots-and-renters","part":"91","heading":"Alcohol or drugs","lastAmended":"2016-12-30","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/91-17","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/91-17.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-91.17","answer":"No one may act as a crewmember within 8 hours of drinking alcohol, while under its influence, with an alcohol concentration of 0.04 or more, or while using any drug that impairs them. Pilots also may not carry an intoxicated passenger, except in an emergency or a medical patient under care.","points":[{"text":"Eight hours from the last drink to acting as a crewmember.","paragraph":"(a)(1)"},{"text":"Never while under the influence, whatever the time since the last drink.","paragraph":"(a)(2)"},{"text":"No drug that affects your faculties contrary to safety, prescription or not.","paragraph":"(a)(3)"},{"text":"Alcohol concentration must be below 0.04 grams per deciliter of blood or per 210 liters of breath.","paragraph":"(a)(4)"},{"text":"Do not carry a passenger who appears intoxicated or under the influence of drugs, except in an emergency or a medical patient under proper care.","paragraph":"(b)"},{"text":"Submit to a test when a law enforcement officer asks under state law, and give the FAA results of tests taken within 4 hours of flying when it has reason to ask.","paragraph":"(c)"}],"questions":[{"question":"Is eight hours enough?","answer":"Only if you are also no longer under the influence and below 0.04. All three limits in paragraph (a) apply, so eight hours is the minimum, not a guarantee."},{"question":"Does it cover cannabis that is legal in my state?","answer":"Paragraph (a)(3) prohibits any drug that affects your faculties contrary to safety, and FAA medical standards treat marijuana as disqualifying regardless of state law."}],"related":["14 CFR 91.3","14 CFR 61.23"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 61.31","farCite":"FAR 61.31","name":"Complex, high-performance and tailwheel endorsements","topic":"pilots-and-renters","part":"61","heading":"Type rating requirements, additional training, and authorization requirements","lastAmended":"2025-10-22","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/61-31","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/61-31.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-61.31","answer":"Some aircraft need more than a pilot certificate. Large and jet aircraft need a type rating, and complex, high-performance (over 200 horsepower), high-altitude pressurized and tailwheel airplanes each need training and a one-time logbook endorsement from an instructor.","points":[{"text":"A type rating is required for large aircraft, turbojet airplanes, powered-lift and other aircraft the FAA designates.","paragraph":"(a)"},{"text":"To carry passengers or fly for hire you need the category, class and type rating for the aircraft.","paragraph":"(c)"},{"text":"Complex airplane: ground and flight training plus a one-time endorsement, unless you logged complex PIC time before August 4, 1997.","paragraph":"(e)(1)"},{"text":"High-performance airplane (engine over 200 horsepower): training plus a one-time endorsement, unless you logged such PIC time before August 4, 1997.","paragraph":"(f)(1)"},{"text":"Pressurized aircraft with a ceiling above 25,000 feet: high-altitude ground training and flight training, each endorsed.","paragraph":"(g)"},{"text":"Tailwheel airplane: flight training in takeoffs, landings, wheel landings and go-arounds, plus an endorsement, unless you logged tailwheel PIC time before April 15, 1991.","paragraph":"(i)(1)"}],"questions":[{"question":"What makes an airplane complex?","answer":"The definition is in 61.1: an airplane with retractable landing gear, flaps and a controllable pitch propeller, where a digital engine control such as a FADEC counts in place of the controllable pitch propeller. For a seaplane, flaps and a controllable pitch propeller are enough."},{"question":"Is the high-performance endorsement about horsepower per engine?","answer":"Paragraph (f) defines a high-performance airplane as one with an engine of more than 200 horsepower, so it is per engine, not combined."},{"question":"Does a renter checkout satisfy 61.31?","answer":"A school's checkout is its own insurance or rental requirement. The 61.31 endorsement is a one-time logbook entry for the class of airplane, and a checkout in a complex airplane is often where students get it."}],"related":["14 CFR 61.51","14 CFR 61.57","14 CFR 61.195"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 61.51","farCite":"FAR 61.51","name":"Pilot logbooks","topic":"pilots-and-renters","part":"61","heading":"Pilot logbooks","lastAmended":"2025-01-21","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/61-51","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/61-51.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-61.51","answer":"You must log the training and experience you use for a certificate, rating, flight review or currency. Each entry needs the date, time, where you departed and arrived, the aircraft, the kind of time (solo, PIC, dual) and the conditions (day, night, instrument).","points":[{"text":"Log the time you use for a certificate, rating, flight review or recent experience.","paragraph":"(a)"},{"text":"Each entry: date, total time, departure and arrival points, aircraft type and identification, and the safety pilot's name if one was required.","paragraph":"(b)(1)"},{"text":"Solo time is only time you are the sole occupant.","paragraph":"(d)"},{"text":"Log PIC time when you are the sole manipulator of the controls of an aircraft you are rated for, the sole occupant, or the instructor giving instruction. A student logs PIC only when solo with a current endorsement.","paragraph":"(e)"},{"text":"Log instrument time only when flying solely by reference to instruments, and record each approach's location and type for currency.","paragraph":"(g)"},{"text":"Training time is endorsed by the instructor with signature, certificate number and expiration or recent experience end date.","paragraph":"(h)(2)"},{"text":"A student pilot carries the logbook and student certificate on every solo cross-country.","paragraph":"(i)(2)"}],"questions":[{"question":"Can a safety pilot log PIC time?","answer":"Often, yes. When the other pilot is under the hood, the safety pilot is a required crewmember under 91.109, so they can log PIC if they act as pilot in command, or SIC under (f)(2) in some cases."},{"question":"Does my logbook have to be paper?","answer":"Paragraph (a) asks for a manner acceptable to the Administrator, and electronic logbooks are widely accepted."}],"related":["14 CFR 61.57","14 CFR 61.56","14 CFR 61.189"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 61.56","farCite":"FAR 61.56","name":"The flight review","topic":"pilots-and-renters","part":"61","heading":"Flight review","lastAmended":"2024-12-02","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/61-56","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/61-56.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-61.56","answer":"To act as pilot in command you need a flight review within the past 24 calendar months: at least 1 hour of ground training and 1 hour of flight training with an instructor, ending in a logbook endorsement. Passing a checkride or completing a phase of the FAA WINGS program counts instead.","points":[{"text":"At least 1 hour of flight training and 1 hour of ground training, covering the Part 91 rules and the maneuvers the instructor chooses.","paragraph":"(a)"},{"text":"It must be done since the beginning of the 24th calendar month before the month you fly as pilot in command.","paragraph":"(c)"},{"text":"A practical test or proficiency check given by an examiner, check airman or the military, for a certificate, rating or operating privilege, counts instead. An instrument proficiency check from an instructor does not.","paragraph":"(d)"},{"text":"Completing a phase of an FAA pilot proficiency program (WINGS) counts as a flight review.","paragraph":"(e)"},{"text":"Flight instructors who met their recent experience requirements skip the hour of ground training.","paragraph":"(f)"},{"text":"A student pilot with a current solo endorsement does not need one.","paragraph":"(g)"}],"questions":[{"question":"My flight review was in May 2024. When does it run out?","answer":"At the end of May 2026. Counting from the beginning of the 24th calendar month before the flight means it lasts to the end of the month two years on."},{"question":"Can I fail a flight review?","answer":"There is no pass or fail; the instructor either endorses the logbook or does not, and keeps training until they can."},{"question":"Is a flight review a BFR?","answer":"Yes. BFR, for biennial flight review, is the older name pilots still use."}],"related":["14 CFR 61.57","14 CFR 61.195","14 CFR 61.51"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 61.57","farCite":"FAR 61.57","name":"Currency: recent flight experience","topic":"pilots-and-renters","part":"61","heading":"Recent flight experience: Pilot in command","lastAmended":"2025-01-21","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/61-57","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/61-57.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-61.57","answer":"To carry passengers you need 3 takeoffs and 3 landings in the preceding 90 days in the same category, class and type, to a full stop if it is a tailwheel airplane. At night you need 3 to a full stop at night. To fly IFR you need 6 approaches, holding and course tracking within the preceding 6 calendar months.","points":[{"text":"Passengers: 3 takeoffs and 3 landings in 90 days as sole manipulator in the same category, class and type; tailwheel landings to a full stop.","paragraph":"(a)(1)"},{"text":"Passengers at night: 3 takeoffs and 3 landings to a full stop between 1 hour after sunset and 1 hour before sunrise, within 90 days.","paragraph":"(b)(1)"},{"text":"IFR: 6 instrument approaches, holding, and intercepting and tracking courses within the 6 calendar months before the month of the flight.","paragraph":"(c)(1)"},{"text":"Instrument currency can be kept in a simulator, flight training device or aviation training device.","paragraph":"(c)(2)"},{"text":"More than 6 calendar months out of instrument currency requires an instrument proficiency check.","paragraph":"(d)(1)"},{"text":"You may fly with an instructor to regain currency without being current.","paragraph":"(e)(5)"}],"questions":[{"question":"Can I regain passenger currency with passengers on board?","answer":"No. Fly the three takeoffs and landings solo, or with only the people necessary for the flight, under (a)(2), or with an instructor under (e)(5)."},{"question":"I let my instrument currency lapse four months ago. Do I need an IPC?","answer":"Not yet. Within the next 6 calendar months you can log the approaches, holding and tracking with a safety pilot in VFR conditions. After that, (d) requires an instrument proficiency check."},{"question":"Does a touch-and-go count for night currency?","answer":"No. Paragraph (b) requires landings to a full stop."}],"related":["14 CFR 61.56","14 CFR 61.51","14 CFR 61.31"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 61.113","farCite":"FAR 61.113","name":"Private pilot privileges and sharing costs","topic":"pilots-and-renters","part":"61","heading":"Private pilot privileges and limitations: Pilot in command","lastAmended":"2025-10-22","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/61-113","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/61-113.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-61.113","answer":"A private pilot may not fly for compensation or hire, but may share a flight's fuel, oil, airport expenses and rental fees with passengers, paying at least their own pro rata share. A few narrow exceptions apply, and the section also sets the limits for flying under BasicMed.","points":[{"text":"No acting as pilot in command for compensation or hire, or carrying passengers or property for hire.","paragraph":"(a)"},{"text":"Flying incidental to your business or job is allowed if no passengers or property are carried for hire.","paragraph":"(b)"},{"text":"You may share costs, but must pay at least your pro rata share, and only fuel, oil, airport expenditures and rental fees count.","paragraph":"(c)"},{"text":"Charitable and community event flights under 91.146, search and location reimbursement, and aircraft sales demos with 200 hours are allowed.","paragraph":"(d)"},{"text":"Under BasicMed: aircraft authorized for no more than 7 occupants and 12,500 pounds maximum takeoff weight, no more than 6 passengers, below 18,000 feet MSL, at or below 250 knots, and within the US unless another country allows it.","paragraph":"(i)"},{"text":"Under BasicMed, keep the completed medical examination checklist and course certificate in your logbook.","paragraph":"(i)(3)"}],"questions":[{"question":"Can three friends and I split the rental four ways?","answer":"Yes, if you pay at least your quarter and the costs are fuel, oil, airport expenditures or rental fees. Paragraph (c) only allows sharing; it does not allow the passengers to pay your share."},{"question":"Does logging time count as compensation?","answer":"The FAA has treated flight time itself as compensation in its legal interpretations, which is why a private pilot cannot take a free flight in return for flying someone somewhere. Ask before relying on a common-purpose arrangement."},{"question":"What are the BasicMed limits now?","answer":"As the section currently reads: an aircraft authorized for no more than 7 occupants with a maximum takeoff weight of no more than 12,500 pounds, no more than 6 passengers, not above 18,000 feet MSL, not above 250 knots indicated, and not outside the US unless authorized. Check the official text below for the current version."}],"related":["14 CFR 61.23","14 CFR 61.3","14 CFR 91.147"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 91.3","farCite":"FAR 91.3","name":"Pilot in command authority","topic":"pilots-and-renters","part":"91","heading":"Responsibility and authority of the pilot in command","lastAmended":"2016-12-30","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/91-3","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/91-3.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-91.3","answer":"The pilot in command is directly responsible for, and is the final authority as to, the operation of the aircraft. In an in-flight emergency that needs immediate action, the pilot may deviate from any Part 91 rule as far as the emergency requires.","points":[{"text":"The pilot in command is responsible for, and the final authority on, the flight.","paragraph":"(a)"},{"text":"In an in-flight emergency requiring immediate action, you may deviate from Part 91 as much as needed.","paragraph":"(b)"},{"text":"If the FAA asks, send a written report of the deviation.","paragraph":"(c)"}],"questions":[{"question":"Does declaring an emergency mean an automatic violation?","answer":"No. Paragraph (b) authorizes the deviation the emergency requires. The FAA may ask for a written report under (c)."}],"related":["14 CFR 91.7","14 CFR 91.103"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 91.103","farCite":"FAR 91.103","name":"Preflight action","topic":"pilots-and-renters","part":"91","heading":"Preflight action","lastAmended":"2016-12-30","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/91-103","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/91-103.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-91.103","answer":"Before every flight the pilot in command must become familiar with all available information about it. That always includes runway lengths and takeoff and landing distances. For IFR flights and flights away from the airport it also includes weather, fuel, alternatives and known ATC delays.","points":[{"text":"Become familiar with all available information concerning the flight.","paragraph":null},{"text":"For IFR or a flight not in the vicinity of an airport: weather reports and forecasts, fuel requirements, alternatives, and known traffic delays.","paragraph":"(a)"},{"text":"For every flight: runway lengths at the airports you plan to use, and takeoff and landing distance data from the flight manual or other reliable information.","paragraph":"(b)"}],"questions":[{"question":"What does NWKRAFT mean?","answer":"A memory aid for this section: NOTAMs, Weather, Known ATC delays, Runway lengths, Alternatives, Fuel requirements, Takeoff and landing distances."},{"question":"Do I need a weather briefing for a local pattern flight?","answer":"Paragraph (a)'s weather requirement applies to IFR and to flights not in the vicinity of an airport. You still have to be familiar with all available information, and checking the weather is part of that."}],"related":["14 CFR 91.151","14 CFR 91.3","14 CFR 91.7"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 91.151","farCite":"FAR 91.151","name":"VFR fuel requirements","topic":"pilots-and-renters","part":"91","heading":"Fuel requirements for flight in VFR conditions","lastAmended":"2016-12-30","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/91-151","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/91-151.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-91.151","answer":"Before a VFR flight, an airplane must carry enough fuel to reach the first intended landing point and then fly at normal cruise for 30 more minutes by day, or 45 minutes at night. A rotorcraft needs 20 minutes.","points":[{"text":"Count wind and forecast weather to the first point of intended landing.","paragraph":"(a)"},{"text":"Airplanes by day: 30 minutes more at normal cruising speed.","paragraph":"(a)(1)"},{"text":"Airplanes at night: 45 minutes more.","paragraph":"(a)(2)"},{"text":"Rotorcraft: 20 minutes more.","paragraph":"(b)"}],"questions":[{"question":"Does the reserve apply at the destination or the first stop?","answer":"To the first point of intended landing, so a planned fuel stop is the point the reserve is measured to."},{"question":"Is 30 minutes enough?","answer":"It is the legal minimum when the flight begins. Many schools and renters set a personal or company minimum of an hour."}],"related":["14 CFR 91.103","14 CFR 91.3"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 61.87","farCite":"FAR 61.87","name":"Student pilot solo requirements","topic":"instructors-and-students","part":"61","heading":"Solo requirements for student pilots","lastAmended":"2016-12-30","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/61-87","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/61-87.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-61.87","answer":"Before a first solo, a student must pass a pre-solo knowledge test given by their instructor, receive and log training in the listed maneuvers, and get a logbook endorsement for the specific make and model. That endorsement is good for 90 days and must be renewed by an instructor every 90 days.","points":[{"text":"Solo means the student is the sole occupant of the aircraft.","paragraph":"(a)"},{"text":"The instructor gives a knowledge test on Parts 61 and 91, the local airspace, and the aircraft, and reviews every wrong answer with the student.","paragraph":"(b)"},{"text":"The student must be trained, and proficient, in the pre-solo maneuvers for the aircraft.","paragraph":"(c)"},{"text":"For single-engine airplanes the list includes preflight, taxi, normal and crosswind takeoffs and landings, traffic patterns, slow flight, stalls, emergencies, ground reference maneuvers, simulated engine failures, slips and go-arounds.","paragraph":"(d)"},{"text":"Solo requires an endorsement for the specific make and model from an instructor who gave the training within the preceding 90 days.","paragraph":"(n)"},{"text":"Night solo needs night training at that airport and its own endorsement.","paragraph":"(o)"},{"text":"The instructor must have trained the student in that make and model, and must update the endorsement every 90 days.","paragraph":"(p)"}],"questions":[{"question":"How long is a solo endorsement good for?","answer":"90 days. Paragraph (p)(4) keeps it current for solo flight privileges as long as an authorized instructor updates the logbook every 90 days."},{"question":"Can a student solo a different model of airplane?","answer":"Only with an endorsement for that make and model. The endorsements in (n) and (p) are specific to it."}],"related":["14 CFR 61.93","14 CFR 61.195","14 CFR 61.189","14 CFR 61.3"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 61.93","farCite":"FAR 61.93","name":"Student solo cross-country flights","topic":"instructors-and-students","part":"61","heading":"Solo cross-country flight requirements","lastAmended":"2016-12-30","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/61-93","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/61-93.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-61.93","answer":"A student needs cross-country training and endorsements before any solo flight more than 25 nautical miles from the home airport or landing anywhere else. Each solo cross-country also needs the instructor to review the student's planning and endorse the logbook for that flight.","points":[{"text":"The rules apply to any solo flight more than 25 nm from the departure airport, or landing anywhere but the origin.","paragraph":"(a)(1)"},{"text":"Solo practice at another airport within 25 nm needs training at that airport, round trip, and an endorsement.","paragraph":"(b)(1)"},{"text":"Repeated solo flights to one airport within 50 nm need training on the route and one endorsement, not one per flight.","paragraph":"(b)(2)"},{"text":"A solo cross-country endorsement is needed for the category, and another for the make and model.","paragraph":"(c)(1)"},{"text":"Each cross-country needs an endorsement after the instructor reviews the student's planning, naming the aircraft and confirming the student is prepared.","paragraph":"(c)(3)"},{"text":"The instructor must check the planning, the weather for VFR, the student's proficiency and the student's current endorsements.","paragraph":"(d)"}],"questions":[{"question":"Does every solo cross-country need its own endorsement?","answer":"Yes, under (c)(3), except repeated flights to the same airport within 50 nm under (b)(2)."},{"question":"What must a student carry on a solo cross-country?","answer":"Their logbook and student pilot certificate, under 61.51(i)(2), as well as photo ID and medical under 61.3."}],"related":["14 CFR 61.87","14 CFR 61.109","14 CFR 61.51","14 CFR 61.195"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 61.109","farCite":"FAR 61.109","name":"Private pilot flight experience","topic":"instructors-and-students","part":"61","heading":"Aeronautical experience","lastAmended":"2025-01-21","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/61-109","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/61-109.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-61.109","answer":"A private pilot certificate with an airplane single-engine rating needs at least 40 hours of flight time, including 20 hours of training with an instructor and 10 hours of solo. The 20 hours must include cross-country, night, instrument and checkride preparation training.","points":[{"text":"At least 40 hours total, with at least 20 hours of instruction and 10 hours of solo.","paragraph":"(a)"},{"text":"3 hours of cross-country training.","paragraph":"(a)(1)"},{"text":"3 hours of night training, including a cross-country of over 100 nm and 10 full-stop takeoffs and landings.","paragraph":"(a)(2)"},{"text":"3 hours of training by reference to instruments.","paragraph":"(a)(3)"},{"text":"3 hours of checkride preparation within the 2 calendar months before the test.","paragraph":"(a)(4)"},{"text":"10 hours of solo: 5 hours of cross-country, one 150 nm cross-country with landings at three points and one leg over 50 nm, and 3 full-stop landings at a towered airport.","paragraph":"(a)(5)"},{"text":"Up to 2.5 hours in a simulator or flight training device can count, or 5 hours in a Part 142 course.","paragraph":"(k)(1)"}],"questions":[{"question":"Do most students finish in 40 hours?","answer":"40 is the minimum the rule allows, not a typical total. Students commonly need considerably more, and schools quote estimates accordingly."},{"question":"Is it 35 hours at a Part 141 school?","answer":"The 35-hour minimum for Part 141 private pilot courses is in Part 141's own appendix, not here. This section's (k)(3) gives 35 hours for a Part 142 training center course."}],"related":["14 CFR 61.93","14 CFR 61.87","14 CFR 61.51","14 CFR 141.55"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 61.189","farCite":"FAR 61.189","name":"Records a flight instructor must keep","topic":"instructors-and-students","part":"61","heading":"Flight instructor records","lastAmended":"2016-12-30","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/61-189","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/61-189.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-61.189","answer":"A flight instructor signs the logbook of everyone they train and keeps their own record of every solo endorsement and every knowledge or practical test endorsement they give, including the test results, for at least 3 years.","points":[{"text":"Sign the logbook of each person given flight or ground training.","paragraph":"(a)"},{"text":"Record the name of each student endorsed for solo, and the date.","paragraph":"(b)(1)"},{"text":"Record the name of each person endorsed for a knowledge or practical test, the kind of test, the date and the result.","paragraph":"(b)(2)"},{"text":"Keep the records at least 3 years.","paragraph":"(c)"}],"questions":[{"question":"Does a school's records system satisfy this?","answer":"The duty is the instructor's, but the record can be a logbook or a separate document, so a school system that holds the names, dates, test types and results for that instructor serves the purpose. The instructor should be able to produce it for 3 years, including after leaving the school."},{"question":"Why does the pass rate matter?","answer":"Test results recorded here also feed the instructor's recent experience under 61.197(b)(2)(i), which counts endorsed applicants and their first-attempt pass rate."}],"related":["14 CFR 61.195","14 CFR 61.197","14 CFR 61.87","14 CFR 141.101"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 61.195","farCite":"FAR 61.195","name":"Flight instructor limitations","topic":"instructors-and-students","part":"61","heading":"Flight instructor limitations and qualifications","lastAmended":"2025-10-22","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/61-195","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/61-195.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-61.195","answer":"A flight instructor may give no more than 8 hours of flight training in any 24 consecutive hours, and may only teach in aircraft for which they hold the matching pilot and instructor ratings. The section also limits which endorsements an instructor may sign and bans self-endorsement.","points":[{"text":"No more than 8 hours of flight training in any 24 consecutive hours.","paragraph":"(a)"},{"text":"Teach only in aircraft for which you hold the category and class on both your pilot and instructor certificates.","paragraph":"(b)"},{"text":"Instrument training for an instrument rating needs an instrument instructor rating (CFII).","paragraph":"(c)"},{"text":"Endorse solo, solo cross-country or Class B solo only after giving the training and finding the student ready; endorse a flight review or IPC only after conducting it.","paragraph":"(d)"},{"text":"Training in a multiengine airplane, helicopter or powered-lift needs 5 hours of PIC time in that make and model.","paragraph":"(f)"},{"text":"Training must be given in an aircraft with two pilot stations of the category and class sought.","paragraph":"(g)(2)"},{"text":"Instructors may never endorse themselves.","paragraph":"(i)"}],"questions":[{"question":"Does ground instruction count toward the 8 hours?","answer":"No. Paragraph (a) limits flight training only."},{"question":"Can a CFI without an instrument instructor rating teach instrument skills?","answer":"Paragraph (l) lets a CFI with the right category and class teach control of the aircraft by reference to instruments, such as the 3 hours a private pilot needs. Training toward an instrument rating needs the instrument instructor rating under (c)."}],"related":["14 CFR 61.197","14 CFR 61.189","14 CFR 61.87","14 CFR 61.93"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 61.197","farCite":"FAR 61.197","name":"Renewing a flight instructor certificate","topic":"instructors-and-students","part":"61","heading":"Recent experience requirements for flight instructor certification","lastAmended":"2024-12-02","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/61-197","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/61-197.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-61.197","answer":"Flight instructor certificates no longer expire. Instead, an instructor may teach only if they have met a recent experience requirement within the preceding 24 calendar months, such as a practical test, an 80 percent first-time pass rate with 5 applicants, or a refresher course.","points":[{"text":"Instructor privileges depend on recent experience within the preceding 24 calendar months.","paragraph":"(a)"},{"text":"The 24 months start from issue, from the month the requirement is met, or from the old end date if renewed in its last 3 months.","paragraph":"(a)"},{"text":"Passing a practical test for an instructor rating counts.","paragraph":"(b)(1)"},{"text":"So does endorsing 5 applicants in 24 months with at least 80 percent passing first time.","paragraph":"(b)(2)(i)"},{"text":"Or serving as a check pilot or chief instructor, completing a refresher course in the last 3 months, a military check, or qualifying WINGS activity.","paragraph":"(b)(2)"},{"text":"Miss it and you may not instruct until privileges are reinstated under 61.199.","paragraph":"(c)"},{"text":"Certificates issued before December 1, 2024 can be renewed the same way before their printed expiration.","paragraph":"(e)"}],"questions":[{"question":"Does my CFI certificate still expire?","answer":"Certificates issued from December 1, 2024 do not carry an expiration date; the instructor needs current recent experience instead. An older certificate shows an expiration date and is renewed under paragraph (e)."},{"question":"What date goes in a student's logbook endorsement now?","answer":"Under 61.51(h)(2)(ii) the instructor writes their certificate expiration date or recent experience end date."}],"related":["14 CFR 61.195","14 CFR 61.189","14 CFR 61.56"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 141.5","farCite":"FAR 141.5","name":"Getting a Part 141 pilot school certificate","topic":"running-a-flight-school","part":"141","heading":"Requirements for a pilot school certificate","lastAmended":"2018-11-26","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/141-5","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/141-5.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-141.5","answer":"A school gets a full Part 141 pilot school certificate only after operating on a provisional certificate. Within the 24 calendar months before applying it must have an 80 percent first-attempt pass rate on its knowledge, practical and end-of-course tests and have graduated at least 10 different people.","points":[{"text":"Apply on the FAA's form, in the manner it prescribes.","paragraph":"(a)"},{"text":"Have held a provisional pilot school certificate.","paragraph":"(b)"},{"text":"Meet Part 141's personnel, aircraft, facility and course requirements for the ratings sought.","paragraph":"(c)"},{"text":"Show an 80 percent or better first-attempt pass rate on knowledge tests, practical tests and end-of-course tests.","paragraph":"(d)"},{"text":"Have graduated at least 10 different people from approved courses.","paragraph":"(e)"}],"questions":[{"question":"Do I need Part 141 to start a flight school?","answer":"No. Many schools train under Part 61, which has no school certificate. Part 141 brings approved syllabi, FAA oversight and lower minimum hours for some certificates, and it is often needed for students using VA benefits or student visas."},{"question":"How long is the provisional period?","answer":"The full certificate needs the record built in the 24 calendar months before applying, so schools usually operate on the provisional certificate long enough to graduate 10 people."}],"related":["14 CFR 141.33","14 CFR 141.55","14 CFR 141.101"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 141.33","farCite":"FAR 141.33","name":"Personnel a Part 141 school must have","topic":"running-a-flight-school","part":"141","heading":"Personnel","lastAmended":"2017-01-01","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/141-33","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/141-33.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-141.33","answer":"A Part 141 school needs enough qualified instructors and a chief instructor for each approved course. It may also name assistant chief instructors and, once it has 10 students enrolled, check instructors for stage checks and end-of-course tests.","points":[{"text":"Have adequate certificated flight and ground instructors, and a qualified chief instructor for each approved course.","paragraph":"(a)(1)"},{"text":"Train any dispatchers, aircraft handlers and line staff in their duties.","paragraph":"(a)(2)"},{"text":"Every instructor holds the instructor certificate and ratings for the course and the aircraft.","paragraph":"(a)(3)"},{"text":"Designate a chief instructor for each course, qualified under 141.35.","paragraph":"(b)"},{"text":"Optionally designate assistant chief instructors under 141.36.","paragraph":"(c)"},{"text":"Designate check instructors under 141.37 once at least 10 students are enrolled.","paragraph":"(d)"},{"text":"One person may hold several positions if qualified for each.","paragraph":"(e)"}],"questions":[{"question":"Can the owner be the chief instructor?","answer":"Yes, if they meet the 141.35 qualifications. Paragraph (e) allows one person to fill more than one position."}],"related":["14 CFR 141.5","14 CFR 141.55","14 CFR 61.195"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 141.55","farCite":"FAR 141.55","name":"What a Part 141 training course must contain","topic":"running-a-flight-school","part":"141","heading":"Training course: Contents","lastAmended":"2017-01-01","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/141-55","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/141-55.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-141.55","answer":"Each Part 141 course must meet the curriculum and minimum hours in its appendix and be written up in a training course outline. The outline describes the rooms, training aids, simulators, airports and aircraft, the instructors' qualifications, and a syllabus with every lesson's objectives, standards and stage checks.","points":[{"text":"Meet the curriculum and minimum ground and flight hours in the appropriate Part 141 appendix.","paragraph":"(a)"},{"text":"Describe ground training rooms and their capacity (unless online), training aids, and simulators or flight training devices.","paragraph":"(c)(1)"},{"text":"List the airports where training flights start and their facilities, and describe the aircraft.","paragraph":"(c)(4)"},{"text":"State the minimum qualifications of each instructor.","paragraph":"(c)(6)"},{"text":"Include a syllabus: prerequisites, each lesson's objectives, standards and time, stage standards, and the checks and tests for each stage.","paragraph":"(c)(7)"},{"text":"A school certificated for 24 months can get initial approval of a course below the minimum hours, with tests given by the FAA or an outside examiner.","paragraph":"(d)"},{"text":"Final approval of a reduced-hour course needs 24 months of initial approval, 10 students trained and an 80 percent first-time pass rate.","paragraph":"(e)"}],"questions":[{"question":"Can I write my own syllabus?","answer":"Yes. Most schools adapt a commercial syllabus, but the training course outline the FAA approves must contain everything in paragraph (c), including lesson objectives, standards and stage checks."}],"related":["14 CFR 141.5","14 CFR 141.101","14 CFR 61.109"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 141.101","farCite":"FAR 141.101","name":"Part 141 training records","topic":"running-a-flight-school","part":"141","heading":"Training records","lastAmended":"2017-01-01","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/141-101","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/141-101.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-141.101","answer":"A Part 141 school keeps a current, accurate record for every enrolled student: enrollment date, a chronological log of attendance, subjects and flights, test names and grades, and the date they graduated, left or transferred. The student's own logbook is not enough. Keep it at least a year.","points":[{"text":"Record the enrollment date.","paragraph":"(a)(1)"},{"text":"Keep a chronological log of attendance, subjects and flight operations covered, and the names and grades of tests taken.","paragraph":"(a)(2)"},{"text":"Record the date the student graduated, terminated or transferred.","paragraph":"(a)(3)"},{"text":"The student's logbook does not count as this record.","paragraph":"(b)"},{"text":"The chief instructor certifies the record at graduation, termination or transfer.","paragraph":"(c)"},{"text":"Keep each record at least 1 year after graduation, termination or transfer.","paragraph":"(d)"},{"text":"Give the student a copy on request.","paragraph":"(e)"}],"questions":[{"question":"Can the record be electronic?","answer":"The section asks for a current and accurate record and does not require paper. Schools commonly keep it electronically, with the chief instructor's certification at the end."},{"question":"Does a Part 61 school need these records?","answer":"No, this is a Part 141 requirement. Part 61 training is documented in the student's logbook and the instructor's records under 61.189."}],"related":["14 CFR 141.55","14 CFR 61.189","14 CFR 61.51"]},{"cite":"14 CFR 91.147","farCite":"FAR 91.147","name":"Sightseeing flights for compensation (LOA)","topic":"running-a-flight-school","part":"91","heading":"Passenger-carrying flights for compensation or hire","lastAmended":"2024-05-28","url":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/91-147","markdown":"https://www.aerscheduler.com/regulations/91-147.md","ecfr":"https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/section-91.147","answer":"An operator selling nonstop passenger flights that start and end at the same airport, within 25 statute miles, needs a Letter of Authorization from the FAA. It must also follow the Part 136 safety rules, run a registered drug and alcohol testing program, and meet Part 5's safety management requirements.","points":[{"text":"Covers nonstop passenger flights for compensation or hire in an airplane, powered-lift or rotorcraft that begin and end at the same airport within 25 statute miles.","paragraph":"(a)"},{"text":"Comply with the Part 136 subpart A safety provisions.","paragraph":"(b)(1)"},{"text":"Register and run a drug and alcohol testing program under Part 120.","paragraph":"(b)(2)"},{"text":"Meet the applicable Part 5 safety management system requirements.","paragraph":"(b)(3)"},{"text":"Get a Letter of Authorization from the responsible Flight Standards office.","paragraph":"(b)(4)"},{"text":"The application lists the business, its managers, its maintenance lead, each aircraft and the drug program registration.","paragraph":"(c)"}],"questions":[{"question":"Does a flight school need an LOA for discovery flights?","answer":"If the school sells nonstop sightseeing or introductory flights that carry passengers for compensation within 25 statute miles, this section is how it does so outside Part 135, and many schools hold an LOA for discovery flights. Check with your FSDO about how your flights are structured."},{"question":"What about charity flights?","answer":"Paragraph (b) exempts operators whose flights are all conducted under 91.146, the charitable and community event rule."}],"related":["14 CFR 61.113","14 CFR 141.5"]}]}